Was the church in the Middle Ages?

The Middle Ages, a pivotal period in church history, have been the subject of scholarly debate regarding their timing and the key figures that shaped their establishment. In this essay, we begin our exploration with Gregory the Great, the first of the monarchs under discussion. Before his reign, Rome was ruled from Constantinople.[1] At the same time, between Chalcedon and Gregory, the established leaders identified Christianity as the primary religion.[2] During this time, the Eastern church was experiencing a schism related to the edict of teaching contrary doctrine.[3] Emperor Justinian (527-565 AD) played a crucial role in the reconquering of Africa, a feat that can be likened to a mini crusade. His efforts were instrumental in shaping the history of the church during the Middle Ages.[4] Luckily, it ended with Justin.[5] The condemnation of the “Three Chapters" was a pivotal moment in the theological discourse of the Middle Ages, particularly in the context of the Monophysites. This event holds significant importance in our understanding of the era.[6] These were significant events in the development of the churches before the end of this era. The following section discusses Gregory the Great.

Gregory the Great was a significant pope in the late sixth century. He was born in 540 AD.[7] Gregory’s battle in his day was against the Lombards, and the church was being converted into pagan buildings.[8] Gregory the Great was a unique figure who devoted his abundant talents to serving those in poverty.[9] His desire to serve the poor is also reflected in his writings.[10]  Gregory the Great is also known for intertwining church and state in various areas, addressing issues that both institutions were dealing with. Regarding his theology, he gave an allegorical (mystical) interpretation of Scripture.[11] These are crucial factors in comprehending the sixth century. The next era is the seventh century.

During the sixth century of the Middle Ages, Gregory the Great advanced the church by involving the church and state in various religious and civil issues. In the seventh century, the clergy had varying degrees of spirituality. As Deanesly proclaims, the clergy were under the bishop's authority, and the monks were involved in spiritual disciplines.[12] Andrew Louth draws that these years suffered with the emergence of Islam, heresies regarding monergism, Monothelitism, and Iconoclasm.[13] What is described as significant is the great awakening of monastic theology, as seen in the works of St. Maximos the Confessor.[14] While this theology is substantial, the importance of clergy training is a spectacle. There were seven young men when they were trained into the order, and Deanesly further writes that this system had a secular/religious bend.[15] This is important because these individuals were taught to read Scripture, participate in the Eucharist, and praise the Lord.[16] Interestingly, the senior presbyter would be known during this period as the “Scholasticus,” Who would train others in the ministry under the bishop.[17] The reason for mentioning this term is that, eventually, academics will be informed by this role of the order (more on this later).[18] Furthermore, even revenue streams were categorized into hierarchical classes: bishops, clergy, church fabrics, and the poor.[19] This plays out in the issues regarding clergy who desire to serve in the church and secular clergy who perform their duties as part of the government.  Monks had the opportunity to choose between Benedictine and Celtic types of monasteries, with the latter being the overall majority in the orders.[20] This marks the end of the seventh century; the following period will delve into the continual growth that emerged from this era.

The eighth century, like its previous counterpart. It involves the construction of a structure within the monastic clergy. In this era, Columban monasteries were established and adhered to a strict discipline in their teachings; it was prescribed as a daily spiritual practice.[21] This is critical, as Benedictine later rose to become the leading type of order, part of a family, and couldn’t leave.[22] This order pertains to a known figure from the ninth century, who will be discussed in the context of this era. Apart from strict rules, they also had to do tasks as early as two in the morning.[23] Different monks came from various places, which illustrates their diverse backgrounds.[24] Yet it is apparent that their time with the Lord, reading, and praises began to be explored in the secular state. Deanesly promotes this term as a civilized monk.[25] Like seminaries and education today, it is unusual for a person to be both a pastor and a professor. Equivalently, it is difficult for a person to fulfill both duties in the church and state, as Gregory the Great quotes regarding this situation.[26] For these monks to follow these specific precepts, they were setting themselves up for holiness, which in turn served the church. Often, monks, because they contemplated the things of God, wrote based on their experiences in Scripture and their own lives. This is critical, as experience was later scrutinized in the development of church education. At the end of this era, Benedictine monasteries became the standard, paving the way for the era of missionaries.[27] These are critical factors, as the next century explains issues that have been constantly discussed in the monastery.

The ninth century is an exciting period, especially regarding two critical issues in the church. This century first presents God’s sovereignty from the perception of Gottschalk and the correlation of meaning in the Lord’s Supper. Gottschalk entered the monastery around eight-fourteen AD.[28] This is significant, as Abbot Rabanus speaks about this individual (he wrote on the Lord’s Supper, discussed in the following paragraph).[29] Remember how Benedictine monasteries couldn’t leave? Gottschalk pushed this rule to its limit and left the monastery to pursue family and missionary work.[30] In short, Gottschalk adhered to an extreme view of Augustine’s perception of predestination, which led to his imprisonment, opposition, influence, and separation from the church. Through his experiences with his father and his Love for Augustine of Hippo, it is interesting that Gottschalk’s case deals with Christians who sought to reform the church. This movement would later come to fruition in the Great Schism and the Reformation.

While it is essential to consider the importance of God’s sovereignty, Gottschalk’s adversary, Ratramnus, explains a different view of the Lord’s Supper. These two men of God held differing views and interpretations regarding Communion, yet they believed that Jesus Christ is present in the sacraments. Louis Berkhof provides an excellent summary of their adjoined work against the belief that the Lord’s Supper was changed into Jesus’ actual body, “This doctrine was opposed by the foremost theologians of the day, and particularly by Rabanus Maurus and Ratramnus, who points out that the new teaching confounds the sign with the thing signified and replaces faith by a gross materialism.”[31] These views regarding the Lord’s Supper are essential in this period. The following section describes the tenth century.

The past couple of centuries have displayed numerous recognitions, milestones, and advancements. It is unique to describe the tenth century as the calm before the storm. In this era, Otto I revived the essence of the “Holy Roman Empire,” claiming to possess Germany and Italy.[32] This is significant as the Eastern and Western churches go through traumatic drama in the next century. As interest in and the renaissance of art in the Eastern Church spread, Latin and Greek Christianity also gained significant influence worldwide.[33] The Photian Schism also ended in the early ninth century AD.[34] These unique events were foundational, laying the groundwork for the eleventh century. Interestingly, the papacy was still evolving as these events unfolded. Deanesly writes that the ruling power was in a state of obscurity and decline.[35] Furthermore, the nations suffered from ravaging circumstances due to many wars and turmoil.[36] These are critical, as they opened doors, good or bad, into Christendom. The Cluny movement impacted how monastics pursue daily life in the Lord. William of Aquitaine pursued a stringent policy that allowed monastic freedom within monasteries.[37] This one spread of difference throughout different monasteries. For example, Dunstan of Canterbury held the most stringent rule over an institution and heightened the standard of secular clergy.[38] Furthermore, the Cluny movement founded and reformed numerous areas of the church, significantly expanding the ecclesiastical institution in the eleventh century.[39] While many significant events occurred during this period, including the decline of the papacy and the spread of Christianity to great lengths, it is essential to recognize that the storm is about to pass.

The tenth century dealt with tribulation, peace, and recovery; the eleventh century was the turn of the ages. Interestingly, the two heresies of the tenth century were beginning to gain prominence in doctrine, which the Western Church was partially fighting against.[40] This is important, as it played a part in the Great Schism of 1054 AD. While this plays into theological controversies, the Cluny movement persisted, and Henry III and William were identified as great leaders.[41] Even better than an individual is Hildebrand, who had education and power yet left early on.[42] What is most intriguing about this individual is that he decreed the repeal of old laws on simony and clerical marriages and stopped lay investiture.[43] While these two achievements were incredible, it is time to transition to the beginning of scholasticism. This era begins with the “Father of Scholasticism,” Anselm of Canterbury.[44] It is notable that Anslem also participated in the conversation about lay investiture and, surprisingly enough, brought the discussion to the forefront.[45]  Anselm had two volumes written around the same time as the Monologion and Proslogion.[46] In Proslogion, his work describes the manifestation of God’s truth in relation, but not entirely limited to, rational reasoning, proving God’s superiority and reality in the world.[47] This is important because the concept is discussed, even as far back as the Enlightenment and beyond. These are important themes to remember as the balances weigh into the early seeds of the Reformation. The next period will discuss the growth of scholasticism and the birth of the Crusades.

The twelfth century is extravagant in that the storm persists through endless turmoil. The church, now divided, begins to face the latest issue: the Islamic religion. The problems, which may be attributed to a religious origin, started as a continental and geographical issue.[48] The first broad brush is that Christians were being dispersed, sent to do missions, and travel to the Holy Places.[49] This did not conclude reasonably; as Islam had grown, the continent had tension with these people, and Christians could not access the Holy Land.[50] Deanesly phrases the summation of the beginning crusade at the turn of the century, “The first crusade was preached by Urban II at the council of Clermont, 1095…by French bishops.”[51] Unfortunately, many crusades proceeded after this event.[52] While these circumstances were happening in the political arena, education was preparing for an upgrade. Anselm had a pupil, Peter of Abelard.[53] He was successfully known for continuing Christian thought and piety in liturgical poetry.[54] Even though Hugh of St. Victor went to a different monastery, he was considered more “Anselmian” than Abelard and complemented the language of the church writers.[55] Lastly, Peter Lombard brings this century to a close with his primer on theological conversations from previous theologians and Fathers, the Sentences, and its expanded work, Super Sentences.[56] As scholasticism grew, so did monasticism. Bernard of Clairvaux, a Cistercian, became abbot in Citeaux.[57] While he began the placement of Templars, he also wrote about the overwork of the law by Popes in On Consideration.[58] These significant figures played crucial roles in this era. Additionally, universities emerged, marking the origin of liberal arts schools.[59] The next centennial discusses Aquinas, friars, and the emergence of the Renaissance.

While the Renaissance has been discussed in relation to the movements in the Church, it is essential to touch upon the papacy, the clergy, and the scholastics. Two renowned papacies, Innocent III and Boniface VIII, were great leaders in the thirteenth century.[60] During this period, the Lateran Council was established between the twelfth and fifteenth centuries AD.[61] This is crucial, as Innocent lays the foundation for All Saints' Day, reforms, the Fourth Crusade, and the hunting of heresies during this time.[62] In fact, along with Innocent came the friars, who were sociological but not meditative like monks. Often, they served in education at universities, in pastoral roles in the church, in missiological work, and in development in the sciences.[63] Within the world of scholastics, Bonaventure and Aquinas were making headway in reinforcing Aristotelian and Augustinian philosophy.[64] Aquinas writes his Summa Theologica.[65] In the same vein, Platonism is still considered the standard despite the reforms in theological education. Bonaventure writes on the soul’s access to knowledge and dependence on Christ.[66] In contrast, Matthew of Aquasparta writes on the soul’s use of knowing knowledge and itself.[67] It is essential to consider the condemnation of the Twelve Hundred and Seventy-seven, which caused issues in the academy, and John Scotus.[68] Scotus writes various concepts, working in the doctrine of illumination, transcendence, primary will in humanity, and the existence of God through metaphysics.[69] Finally, the influence of Thomist theology, in which philosophy and theology are two separate sciences.[70] This presents a unique examination of various doctrines in ecclesiology.[71] Much happened during this unique century. The following section discusses the fourteenth century, concluding the Middle Ages period.

The fourteenth century is distinct, marked by the weakening of the political-spiritual church, the rise of dioceses, the discussion of academic heresies, and the emergence of mystics. The start of the Avignon popes in this period is Clement V.[72] The Avignon popes began with Offace’s experience with the kings from England and France; this experience led them to reconsider their view that they were under Babylonian captivity.[73] So, it is safe to say that the French influence was perceived as a pagan takeover. Even bishops were being further defined as parishes were growing.[74] Furthermore, the Great Schism of this century was a significant move back to Rome, which the Theatine of Siena fantastically expressed.[75] Many mystics produced numerous works during this time, and Ramon Lull was one of them, creating The Great Book of Contemplation.[76] Eckhart writes innumerable books, not exclusive to the Treatise on Distinctions, On Solitude and the Attainment of God, and a fragment on Love is not Lazy.[77] Furthermore, writes sermons on eternal birth, the contemplative life, and motives for the Lord’s Supper.[78] Roll writes his desire for poverty in The Mending of Life. Susa is understood as“ the chevalier of wisdom” in his works, and Siena’s Dialogue writes about living life to the fullest with faith. [79] Before leaving for academic heresy, it is worth noting that Ruysbroeck’s volume on The Sparkling Stone and German Theology is ascribed to Tauler and the Frankfurter.[80] Academic heresy is unique in that it has given chiefly rise to cults during the past hundred years, notably among the Waldenses, John Wycliffe (mentioned later alongside Huss), the Lollards, and the use of the Inquisition.[81] The final century concludes with an explanation of the conciliar movement, the development of hospitals, the emergence of more mystics, and the early Renaissance.

The fifteenth-century Renaissance, Reformation, and Conciliar periods. To begin with, this was the major reform in the church during the first half of the century, yet in spirit, it was happening in three different places, inspired by Wycliffe in England, John Hus in Bohemia, and Jerome of Prague in the Netherlands.[82] Groot provides the “New Devotion” movement, which was missional; this would later be expounded upon in a couple of hundred years with the Great Awakening and revivals.[83] On the other hand, the English and Bohemian developments were characterized by Proto-Protestantism, where the Bible was the primary source of material.[84] Hus developed the Church and held similar views on sacraments, rites, and customs.[85] Unfortunately, most of these figures eventually became considered heretical by the church; Nicholas of Cusa was perceived as a conciliarist mystic who compiled the Catholic Concordance, Learned Ignorance, and The Vision of God.[86] Hospitals had been developing in the same vein, so parishes and bishops would contribute to hospitals as different classes of people were being educated, growing less illiterate, and serving in various capacities.[87] Another Mystic who served in this area was Catherine of Genoa, who, through much enduring contemplation and vigils, as well as serving people experiencing poverty in the hospital, wrote the Treatise on Purgatory, describing an interesting, sanctified exposition of the later-disputed doctrine of the Reformation.[88] The Renaissance was somewhat different from the Renaissance, marked by decrees, heresies, legislation, the fall of Constantinople, and a surge in Greek philosophy in terms of morality.[89] He was remarking on the conclusion of the Middle Ages and the beginning of the Reformation, which opposed and intertwined with the state.

Bibliography

Berkhof, Louis. The History of Christian Doctrines. Grand Rapids, MI: WM. B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1949.

Deanesly, Margaret. A History of the Medieval Church, 590-1500. 9Th ed., reprinted with Corrections. University Paperbacks. London: Methuen, 1972.            

Evans, G. R. The Medieval Theologians. The Great Theologians. Oxford: Blackwell, 2001.

Fairweather, Eugene Rathbone, and Eugene Rathbone Fairweather. A Scholastic Miscellany: Anselm to Ockham. Ichthus ed. The Library of Christian Classics. Philadelphia: Westminster Press, 1981.

Gottschalk, Viktor Genke, and Francis X. Gumerlock. Gottschalk and Medieval Predestination Controversy: Texts Translated from the Latin. Mediæval Philosophical Texts in Translation, No. 47. Milwaukee, Wis.: Marquette University Press, 2010.

Petry, Ray C. Late Medieval Mysticism. The Library of Christian Classics, V. 13. Philadelphia: Westminster Press, 1957.

[1] Deanesly, Margaret. A History of the Medieval Church, 590-1500. 9Th ed., reprinted with corrections ed. (University Paperbacks. London: Methuen, 1972), 1.

[2] Ibid., 2.

[3] Ibid., 7.

[4] Ibid, 7-8

[5] Ibid., 7.

[6] Ibid, 10-11.

[7] Ibid., 16.

[8] Ibid.

[9] Ibid., 17.

[10] Discussed in class, his desire to serve the poor is displayed in his writings and actions as a civil leader.

[11] Deanesly, History of the Medieval Church, 26-27.

[12] Ibid...29.

[13] Evans, G. R. The Medieval Theologians. The Great Theologians (Oxford: Blackwell, 2001), 42.

[14] Ibid.

[15] Deanesly, History of the Medieval Church, 30-31.

[16] Ibid, 32.

[17] Ibid., 33.

[18] Otherwise known as “ordo doctorum.” See Deanesly, History of the Medieval Church, 32.

[19] Ibid, 34.

[20] Ibid, 35-36.

[21] Ibid, 37.

[22] Ibi.., 38.

[23] Ibid, 39.

[24] Ibid.

[25] Ibid., 40.

[26] Ibid.

[27] Ibid, 40-41.

[28] Gottschalk, Viktor Genke, and Francis X.. Gumerlock. Gottschalk and a Medieval Predestination Controversy: Texts Translated from the Latin. Mediæval Philosophical Texts in Translation, No. 47 (Milwaukee, Wis.: Marquette University Press, 2010), 11.

[29] Ibid.

[30] Ibid, 17-18, 22.

[31] Louis Berkhof, The History of Christian Doctrines (Grand Rapids, MI: WM. B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1949), 260.

[32] Deanesly, History of the Medieval Church, 63.

[33] Deanesly, History of the Medieval Church, 73-77.

[34] Ibid., 78.

[35] Ibid, 89.

[36] Ibid.

[37] Ibid, 93.

[38] Ibid, 97.

[39] Ibid., 98.

[40] Deanesly, History of the Medieval Church, 71.

[41] Ibid., 99.

[42] Around 1046 AD. See Deanesly, History of the Medieval Church, 99.

[43] Ibid., 100.

[44] Fairweather, Eugene Rathbone, and Eugene Rathbone Fairweather. A Scholastic Miscellany: Anselm to Ockham. Ichthus ed. The Library of Christian Classics (Philadelphia: Westminster Press, 1981), 47.

[45] Deanesly, History of the Medieval Church, 102-103.

[46] Fairweather, A Scholastic Miscellany, 49.

[47] Ibi.d, 52.

[48] Deanesly, History of the Medieval Church, 105-106.

[49] Ibid., 105.

[50] Ibid., 106.

[51] Ibid, 106-107.

[52] Ibid, 107-108.

[53] Fairweather, A Scholastic Miscellany, 224.

[54] Ibid, 224-225.

[55] Ibid, 225-226.

[56] Ibid, 227-228.

[57] Deanesly, History of the Medieval Church, 118-119.

[58] Ibid., 121.

[59] Ibid, 128.

[60] Ibid, 140.

[61] Ibid, 141.

[62] Ibid, 141-149.

[63] Ibid, 156

[64] Fairweather, A Scholastic Miscellany, 363-367.

[65] Deanesly, History of the Medieval Church, 168.

[66] Fairweather, A Scholastic Miscellany, 368-369; Also, his work on Christ’s knowledge, 379-401.

[67] Ibid, 369.

[68] Ibid, 370-371.

[69] Ibid, 371-372.

[70] Deanesly, History of the Medieval Church, 170-171.

[71] For specifics, see Deanesly, History of the Medieval Church, 171-172.

[72] (1305-1313 AD); Ibid, 176.

[73] Deanesly, History of the Medieval Church, 174-177.

[74] See “The Fourteenth Century Diocese and Parish in England” in Deanesly, History of the Medieval Church, 187-203.

[75]The Schismlastedd from 1378 to 1417 AD. Ibid, 184-185.

[76] Petry, Ray C. Late Medieval Mysticism. The Library of Christian Classics, V. 13 (Philadelphia: Westminster Press, 1957), 142.

[77] Petry, Late Medieval Mysticism, 170, 200-202, 207.

[78] Ibid, 177-199, 203-206.

[79] Ibid., 212, 246, 265.

[80] Ibid, 287, 321.

[81] See “Medieval Heresy and the Inquisition” in Deanesly, History of the Medieval Church, 215-231.

[82] Ibid.

[83] It is interesting to note that both movements have similar motives and actions. Ibid, 232-233.

[84] Ibi..d, 234.

[85] Ibid.

[86] Deanesly, History of the Medieval Church, 235-241; Petry, Late Medieval Mysticism, 252.

[87] See “Schools: Hospitals: Anchorages,” in Deanesly, History of the Medieval Church, 204-214.

[88] Petry, Late Medieval Mysticism, 392-393.

[89] See “The Renaissance,” in Deanesly, History of the Medieval Church, 245-258.